Schools of interpretation

We need now to sort out the major ways in which people have interpreted Revelation. Interpreters disagree concerning the period of time and the manner in which the visions of 6:1-18:24 are fulfilled. Four main approaches or schools of interpretation have developed over the centuries. Preterists think that fulfillment occurs in the fall of Jerusalem (if Revelation was written in 67-68 A.D.) and/or the fall of the Roman Empire. Futurists think that fulfillment occurs in a period of final crisis just before the Second Coming. Historicists think that 6:1-18:24 offers a basically chronological outline of the course of church history from the first century (6:1) until the Second Coming (19:11). Idealists think that the scenes of Revelation depict not specific events but principles of spiritual war. The principles are operative throughout the church age and may have repeated embodiments.

Let us illustrate with 13:1-8. When and how does the imagery of the Beast find fulfillment? Preterists see in the Beast the persecution of Christians by the Roman emperor. Futurists see a future antichrist figure, the man of lawlessness of 2 Thess. 2:3-8. Historicists find here the pope, who persecuted the Reformation. (But some Roman Catholic historicists would say Martin Luther!) Idealists think of state persecuting power whenever and wherever it rises to threaten Christians.

Or again, consider the vision of the locust plague in 9:1-11. Preterists say it “symbolizes the hellish rottenness, the internal decadence in the Roman Empire.”³ Historicists associate it with the Islamic invasion of the West. The crowns of 9:7 are the turbans of the Arabs.⁴ The breastplates of iron in 9:9 stand for “the steel or iron cuirasses of the Arab warriors.”⁵ The five months are 150 years, from 612, the public opening of Mohammed’s mission, to 762, the removal of the Caliphate to Baghdad.⁶ For Seiss the futurist all the material is a literal description of future agents of judgment.⁷ For Hendriksen the idealist it a generalized picture of how the wicked suffer for their wickedness: “can you conceive of a more frightful and horrible and true(!) picture of the operation of the power of darkness in the soul of the wicked during this present age.”⁸

A combination of these views is probably closest to the truth. The imagery in Revelation is multifaceted, and is in principle capable of multiple embodiments. Idealists maintain that general principles are expressed. If so, those principles had a particular relevance to the seven churches and their struggles in the first century (1:4; see under Occasion and Purpose). The principles also will come to climactic expression in the final crisis of the Second Coming (22:20; cf. 2 Thess. 2:1-12). We ourselves are involved in the same spiritual war, and so we must apply the principles to ourselves and our own time (see note on 1:3). Hence, many passages have at least three main applications, namely to the first century, to the final crisis, and to us in whatever time we live.

Let us consider the main points in favor of each of the four main approaches.

Idealism: Repeated Pattern of fulfillment

What indications in Revelation favor an idealist approach?

What we have already seen concerning Satanic counterfeiting favors idealism. On a basic level, Satan’s methods are always the same. He must be an imitator of God, because he is not the creator or originator. Since God is always the same, Satanic counterfeiting will always be the same.

Moreover, as we shall see in examining the structure of Revelation, the appearing of God in Rev. 4-5 is at the heart of the Book. God’s character is at the bottom of all the visions, and determines in profound ways what John sees. Revelation is about theophany, God appearing. God appears climactically and finally at the time of the Second Coming. But even now he rules from his heavenly throne and is present with us. The manner of his rule and presence is determined by who he is in heaven. Hence, there is theologically a common character to the entire age. Moreover, God’s action now has similar structure to his climactic appearance, in conformity with the general New Testament pattern of “inaugurated eschatology.” Through Christ’s resurrection and the gift of the Holy Spirit, we are sons of God right now (Rom. 8:14-17). At the Second Coming we receive sonship in fullness (Rom. 8:23). In union with Christ we have resurrection life now (Col. 3:1). At the Second Coming we will have resurrection bodies (1 Cor. 15:50-56; Phil. 3:21).

Several more minor points support the idea that Revelation intends to describe the entire period between the First and Second Coming of Christ.

• Revelation addresses itself to “his servants,” thereby including all Christians in all locations and times (1:1; 22:6, 18).
• The 7 churches in Rev. 2-3 stand for all churches everywhere. Other churches in the same region (at Colossae and Hierapolis) are not mentioned. It appears that 7 churches are selected because 7 symbolically represents completeness. The refrain near the end of the message to each church is “He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22). “He who has an ear” includes in principle any Christian. The word churches in the plural suggests that people ought to listen to all the messages, not merely the one addressed immediately to their church. Hence, the messages are applicable generally, and this generality would include even those beyond the membership of all seven churches together—not only people at Colossae and Hierapolis, but in any location and any time.
• The fluidity and multifaceted character of symbols opens the way to seeing multiple applications.
• Revelation 4:1 and 1:1 indicate that Revelation is unfolding the period of “last things” (eschatology) included in Dan. 2:45, which encompasses the entire period between the First and Second Coming of Christ.⁹
• Rev. 4:1, “what must take place after this,” has exactly the same words in Greek as Dan. 2:45 (Theodotion’s translation). Similar wording, “what must soon take place,” opens Revelation in 1:1. There are further subtle connections. In Dan. 2:45 God showed the king what must take place. In Revelation God shows his servants what must take place. In Dan 2:45 “the dream is true and the interpretation is trustworthy.” In Rev. 19:11 (cf. 1:5) Christ is “faithful and true” (the same Greek words). Nebuchadnezzar’s dream in Daniel 2 sets out the course of history. After a succession of godless world empires the kingdom of God comes in the time of the fourth empire, the Roman Empire (2:40-44). Daniel includes both inauguration and the consummation of God’s kingdom in a very brief description (2:44). Thus the entire age between the First Coming of Christ (inauguration in the Roman Empire period) and the Second Coming (consummation) is included. All of this eschatological action is hundreds of years distant from Daniel’s own time. John, on the other hand, finds himself right in the middle of the action. What was distant for Daniel is therefore “soon” for John—indeed, already beginning to take place before his eyes.
• Note also that God designed Scripture to be applied. Since all Scripture is profitable (2 Tim. 3:17), so is Revelation. If it is canon, it applies to us.
• In view of 2 Timothy 3:17, even if one of the other schools of interpretation is correct, it must find an application for us. To do so, it must generalize beyond the particular circumstances of the first century (preterism) or the final crisis (futurism). The generalized truth that it uncovers will match the idealist’s viewpoint. Hence, in terms of application for today, any of the four approaches tends to yield roughly the same results as an idealist approach.

Insights from Futurism: Fulfillment in the Final Crisis

What indications in Revelation appear to favor futurism?

• Revelation looks forward above all to the great event of Christ’s Coming.
• The celebration at the marriage supper of the Lamb (19:6-9) and the appearing of Christ to fight the final battle (19:11-21) seem unmistakably to point to the Second Coming.
• The vision of the new Jerusalem in 21:1-22:5 shows a perfection that lies on the other side of the Second Coming (cf. 21:8; 21:27; 22:4-5).
• The “time” in 1:3 is the time when Christ comes, according to 22:10-12.
• 1:7 describes the Second Coming: “every eye will see him.”
• The final promise, “Yes, I am coming soon” (22:20) refers to the Second Coming. The liturgical response, “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus,” reiterates the prayer of the early church, “Come O Lord” (1 Cor. 16:22), originally in Aramaic (“Marana tha”). The church knew that Christ might “come” in a sense to have fellowship with them in the Lord’s Supper, and that he might “come” to execute judgment on unbelief as in the fall of Jerusalem (Luke 21:20-24). But we cannot exclude from this prayer the reference to the most exciting, climactic, and desired coming of all, the Great Coming when he appears (1 Thess. 4:13-5:11). The Second Coming was the great hope of the early church, and with that hope in mind first century Christians would have read Revelation.

Preterism (fulfillment in the Roman Empire)

What indications appear to favor preterisim (fulfillment in the Roman Empire)?

The strongest evidence for a preterist approach lies in the connections of Revelation to the situation of the 7 churches. Every one of the messages in Rev. 2-3 contains details about the church situation, including subtle allusions to the larger environment in the city (see commentary on chapters 2-3 and Colin Hemer’s research on the 7 churches in The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia). The problems addressed in Rev. 2-3 continue to be in focus throughout the rest of the Book. The visionary material of Rev. 4:1-22:5 has many linkages backward. For example, references to “those who say that they are Jews and are not” (2:9; 3:9) are connected with the vision of the true Jews in 7:1-8. Satan’s throne in 2:13 relates to the Dragon/Satan in 12:9. Martyrdom in 2:10, 13 links up with martyrdom in 6:9; 11:7; 13:15; 17:6; and 20:4. The promise of the tree of life in 2:7 links with the tree in 22:2. Jezebel in 2:20-22 links with the Prostitute of 17:3ff. And so on. Through these linkages it becomes clear that the whole Book, not just Rev. 2-3, addresses the problems and struggles of the 7 churches in the first century.

Other arguments also favor preterism. Revelation is apocalyptic literature (see on Apocalyptic), and according to many scholars all apocalyptic literature is about its own time, not the distant future.

But this argument rests on a fallacious generalization. Within the Bible, Numbers 23-24, Ezekiel, Daniel 7-12, Isaiah 24-27, Zechariah, 1 Thess. 4-5, 2 Thess. 1-2, the Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24; Mark 13; Luke 21), and Revelation are examples of apocalyptic literature (see below under Genre). All of these were designed to have practical value for the immediate audience, but often through the means of including predictions about the distant future. One may also find predictions about the future in extrabiblical apocalyptic: for example, 1QM, 1 Enoch, and 4 Ezra.

class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"> Revelation says that the time is near (1:1, 3: 22:10). “The time” in question must be the time in which the bulk of the visions find fulfillment. It is not adequate to interpret this language as affirming merely a theoretical imminence of the Second Coming. It is true that no one knows the exactly time of Christ’s Coming (Mark 13:32-37; Acts 1:7). The “we” language in Paul shows that, as far as he knew, Christ might return while he was still alive (1 Thess. 4:13-5:11; 1 Cor. 15:51). That is to say, Christ’s Coming may be near; it may be soon. But 1:3 and 22:10 assert that the time is near. They offer us a confident assertion, not a confession of ignorance.

Nearness of the Time

The assertion of nearness might seem to be in tension with the arguments in favor of futurism. If the time of fulfillment includes the Second Coming, how can it be “soon” and “near”? This question is so vexing that it deserves separate attention. Interpreters have offered several solutions.

First, according to many modernists and unbelievers, John was wrong. He predicted that the Second Coming would be soon, but it was not.

This solution is unacceptable. It denies the divine authority of the Bible and judges itself wiser than God, just as Satan has always tempted us to do (Gen. 3:1-5).

Second, the beginning of the fulfillments is near, because 6:1-3 receives its fulfillment soon.

But 1:3 and 22:10 are like bookends enclosing the whole prophecy of Revelation. The fulfillment of everything, not just a part, is near.

Third, the “coming” of Christ that Revelation anticipates is not the Second Coming, but various “comings” before the End in order to punish or reward. Note the mention of Christ coming in 2:5; 2:16; 3:11.

But in reply we may say that 2:5; 2:16; and perhaps 3:11 have contexts that limit or even redefine the kind of “coming” in view. 1:7; 22:20; and 21:1-22:5 do not have these same limitations.

Fourth, the Second Coming is imminent (may be near).

But see the discussion under preterism for the problems with this approach. To say that we do not know the time is not the same as saying that it is near, as a promise.

Fifth, the “nearness” is a structural nearness belonging to the whole period of inaugurated eschatology, from the First Coming to the Second.

The connection with Dan. 2:45, discussed under Idealism, seems to point in this direction. What is distant from Daniel’s point of view is now near—indeed, already in process. Moreover, neither Old Testament prophecy nor New Testament prophecy are preoccupied with quantities of time as measured by the clock. They focus more on the character of the times. Jesus’ exhortations to watch (Mark 13:32-37) do not depend on whether the Second Coming is five days away or five millennia away, but on the character of the responsibility of disciples while he, the master, “leaves his house.”

One may see a similar attitude in 1 John 2:17-18. “Dear children, this is the last hour.” For John, it is not only the last days, but the last “hour”!. How can John say so? Does John make his pronouncement because he received some special esoteric notice from God about the quantity of time left? By no means. He expects rather to convince his readers of this truth by appealing to facts that they already know. “You have heard that the antichrist is coming, even now many antichrists have come. This is how we know it is the last hour.”

John’s hearers already knew about antichrist in the singular, probably the same as the man of lawlessness in 2 Thess. 2, whom Christ destroys at the Second Coming (2 Thess. 2:8). Such antichrist opposition had been predicted in the vision of the little horn of Dan. 7:8, 20-22 (cf. Dan. 8:9). John then observes that there are many antichrists, in the plural. In their function these belong in the same broad category with the final antichrist (cf. 2 Thess. 2:7). They show that we are living in times structurally like the final crisis when the singular antichrist is revealed. They show that we are already in the period of Daniel’s little horn, a period that from an Old Testament prophetic point of view is the last hour before God’s judgment (Dan. 7:22).

The nearness in Revelation needs to be interpreted in the same way. Revelation describes throughout its pages the character of the interadvent period. This period according to Daniel lies just before the final judgment (see above on Idealism).

Think of a carnival. People using a sledgehammer try to propel a weight up to hit a bell at the top. The rising of the weight is like the rising of a crisis of persecution and antichrist activity. The weight gets near to top, that is, near to the Second Coming. It may rise and fall several times before someone finally succeeds in ringing the bell. Likewise, there may be many crises before the end, and each is near to the Second Coming.

Insights of Historicism: Fulfillment spread linearly through Church History

Of the four schools of interpretation historicism is undoubtedly the weakest, though it was popular centuries ago. With preterism, it correctly sees that Revelation begins with the situation of the seven churches. With futurism, it correctly sees that Revelation ends with the Second Coming. It also notices that Revelation moves toward a climax, that there is a drama of development as one reads through the book. So it simply stretches a time line from the first century in Revelation 2-3 to the Second Coming in 19:11-21, and trying to line up all the other visions somewhere in between.

But in the process it introduces the key assumption that the visions of Revelation follow one another in chronological order. In fact, the order is thematic, not purely chronological, as one can see from 12:5. (See the discussion below on Structure.) Hence, the historicist approach, insofar as it assumes a strict chronological order, must be abandoned.

Combining the Insights of the Schools

All the school except the historicist school have considerable merit. Can we somehow combine them? If we start with the idealist approach, it is comparatively easy to see how. The images in Revelation enjoy multiple fulfillments. They do so because they embody a general pattern. The arguments in favor of futurism show convincingly that Revelation is interested in the Second Coming and the immediately preceding final crisis (cf. 2 Thess. 2:1-12). But fulfillment in the final crisis does not eliminate earlier instances of the general pattern. We have both a general pattern and a particular embodiment of the pattern in the final crisis.

Likewise, the arguments in favor of preterism show convincingly that Revelation is interested in the seven churches and their historic situation. The symbols thus have a particular embodiment in the first century, and we ought to pay attention to this embodiment.

Finally, we have a responsibility to apply the message of Revelation to our own situation, because we are somewhere in church history, somewhere in the interadvent period to which the book applies. Here is the grain of truth in the historicist approach.

We can sum up these insights in a single combined picture. The major symbols of Revelation represent a repeated pattern. This pattern has a realization in the first century situation of the seven churches. It also has an embodiment in the final crisis. And it has an embodiment now. We pay special attention to the embodiment now, because we must apply the lessons of Revelation to where we are.

Content and Style

In the opening vision Christ appears as the majestic king and judge of the universe, and ruler of the churches (1:12-20). In 2:1-3:22 Christ addresses specific needs of each church. His powerful promises also remind the churches of the scope and profundity of their calling (2:7, 10-11, 17, 26-28; 3:5, 12, 21). The selection of exactly seven churches suggests the wider relevance of the message (see commentary on 1:4).

In 4:1-22:5 Christ’s rebukes and encouragement take a new form. Through Christ and his angels (22:8-9, 16) John receives a series of visions intended to open our eyes to the kingship and majesty of God, the nature of spiritual warfare, God’s judgments on evil, and the outcome of the conflict. God and his army must win the battle (17:14; 19:1-2), but his forces are opposed by Satan, the great Dragon (12:3), who leads the whole world astray (12:9). Satan has two agents, the Beast and the False Prophet, who together with him make up a counterfeit trinity (13:1-18; 16:13; see note on 13:1-10). The Beast, representing raw power and state persecution, threatens to suppress true witness and compel people to worship him (13:7-8). The False Prophet is his assistant and propagandist. Babylon, representing the worldly city and the desirable aspects of idolatrous society, threatens to seduce the saints away from spiritual purity (2:20-23; 17:1-18). In opposition to these threats the saints must maintain true witness, even to the point of martyrdom (12:11), and must maintain true spiritual purity (14:4; 19:8). In the consummation, their witness finds its fulfillment in the final light of God’s truth (21:22-27), and their purity is fulfilled in the spotless bride of the Lamb (21:9).

The principal theme of Revelation is that God rules history and he will bring it to its consummation in Christ. At the center are the visions of Christ (1:12-16) and of God (4:1-5:14). God displays his majesty, authority, and righteousness as the ruler and judge of the universe (see commentary on 1:12-20). These central visions already foreshadow the consummation of history, when God’s glory will fill all things (21:22-23; 22:5; see commentary on 4:1-5:14). Detailed elements in the visions flesh out these truths, and are to be seen as part of a larger picture.

Further information on content is contained in the commentary, especially in the summaries that occur at the beginning of each new section: 1:1-3; 1:4-5a; 1:5b-8; 1:9-11; 1:12-20; 2:1-3:22; 4:1-5:14; 6:1-8:1; 8:2-11:19; 12:1-14:20; 15:1-16:21; 17:1-19:10; 19:11-21; 20:1-10; 20:11-15; 21:1-8; 21:9-22:5; 22:6-21.

Major Themes

A number of major themes run through the book. We discussed counterfeiting above. But there are many other important themes that interlock with this one.

God

Revelation is first of all God-centered. God controls the course of history. God protects his people and punishes rebellion. God will bring his purposes to final, spectacular realization in the new heaven and the new earth.

Worship

The appropriate response to God on the part of his creatures is worship. Scenes of worship occur throughout the book (1:12-20; 4:1-5:14; 7:9-17; 8:3-5; 11:16-19; 12:10-12; 14:1-7; 15:2-8; 16:5-7; 19:1-10; 20:4-6; 21:1-22:5). By showing us the marvel of who God is and what he does, Revelation calls us to respond with awe, godly fear, praise, faith, and obedience. Thus all of Revelation promotes true worship of God.

The Lamb

In the realization of God’s purposes the Lamb has the key role (5:1-14). Jesus Christ is presented to us as the Lamb to symbolize his sacrificial death. His deity is shown by the fact that he shares God’s names (the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, 1:8, 17; 22:13), God’s throne (22:1), God’s attributes (1:13-16 compared to Dan. 7:9-10), and his worship (5:13). Only through him, by virtue of his death and resurrection, can God’s plan for history be unrolled (5:1-10). The Lamb mediates God’s judgments in history (6:1; 19:11-21).

Visions

God discloses his purposes in visionary form (1:12-22:5), sometimes accompanied by sounds and verbal messages as well. Symbolic figures and scenes indicate the relation of God’s plan to history. The symbolic form of communication seems strange to many modern readers, but it was familiar to the first century. Revelation belongs to a larger pattern or genre of communication called apocalyptic. (See on Apocalyptic.)

Theophany (God’s appearing)

Revelation presents its concerns in visionary form. It is fitting, then, that at the thematic center of all the visions stands the vision of God himself. God appears. He appears enthroned in the midst of his heavenly angelic assistants in 4:1-11. He appears when Christ appears in 1:12-16. He appears climactically at the close of this age, at the Second Coming of Christ. The King comes. All the events of this age move forward toward the Second Coming. Revelation contains a dramatic momentum that increases as we near the Great Event.

In fact, in a broad way theophany, that is, God’s appearing, controls the entire contents of Revelation. It is important not to rush by the descriptions of God appearing, as if these descriptions were simply an extra frill, in order to get to the supposed “meat” contained in the details of prophecy. The main point is right there in who God is. The details are consequences deriving from who he is.

We can see something of the centrality of God’s appearing as we travel through the main sections of the book. God appears through the appearing of Christ in 1:12-16. Christ is the announcer of the messages to the seven churches in Rev. 2-3. Moreover, the messages each begin with an allusion to the character of Christ as it is revealed in Rev. 1. All but the last two of the messages refer to some feature from the vision in 1:12-20. For example, at the beginning of the message to the church at Ephesus Christ says, “These are the words of him who holds the seven stars in his right hand and walks among the seven golden lampstands” (2:1). He refers to the stars in 1:16 and lampstands in 1:12. The last two messages, to Philadelphia and Laodicea, show more distant connections. The “key of David” in 3:7 is similar to the “keys of death and Hades” in 1:18. The “faithful and true witness” of 3:14 corresponds to the “faithful witness” of 1:5.

The vision of God in 4:1-5:14 is obviously the key opening scene from which the action of the book unfolds. Subsequently, we find that there are seven cycles of judgment, each of which leads up to the Second Coming (see on Structure). The first of these cycles consists of the opening of the seven seals, 6:1-8:1. The seals belong to the heavenly book that appears in 5:1. The Lamb, who appears in 5:6, is the one who opens the seals. Thus the action in 6:1-8:1 is controlled by the Lamb and the sealed book from the vision in 5:1-14. The judgments issue from the presence of God.

The other cycles are similarly dependent on the appearing of God and his presence, though the kind of dependence is not always immediately obvious. The cycle of seven trumpets is set in motion by seven angels “who stand before God” (8:2). Hence, these judgments issue from the presence of God.

The cycle of symbolic histories in 12:1-14:20 has as a major focus the counterfeit trinity, consisting of the Dragon, the Beast, and the False Prophet. These three counterfeit the activity of the Trinitarian God (see on Counterfeiting). As such, they are dependent on God. Their appearance is a hideous counterfeit of his appearance.

The cycle of seven bowls in 15:1-16:21 issues from the temple of God (15:5-8). The temple is “filled with smoke from the glory of God and from his power,” a sign of his presence in theophany.

The next cycle, in 17:1-19:10, focuses on Babylon, the counterfeit of the Bride in 19:7. The Bridge reflects the glory of God in theophany (see 21:9, 11). Babylon is a counterfeit of this appearing.

The cycle with the rider, in 19:11-21, is an appearance of Christ, who is the divine warrior (see on Spiritual War).

The unit in 20:1-15 focuses on scenes of heavenly rule (20:4, 11-15), which involve theophany.

The vision of the new Jerusalem in 21:1-22:5 has at its center the “throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1), who are seen by the worshipers (22:4).

Thus, theophany functions as a kind of origin for the symbolism of the entire visionary center of Revelation. Indeed, in a broad sense, all the material in 1:12-22:5 is a giant, complex theophany together with its accompaniments.

Spiritual war

Revelation goes underneath the surface in its analysis of history in order to show the spiritual forces at work. God and his agents war against Satan and his agents. Humanity is in the middle of this war. One’s allegiance to God or to Satan, and the consequences in life, structure the meaning of history (see on Counterfeiting). By this spiritual perspective Revelation does not eliminate human responsibility and the significance of human action, but rather sets them in their final, cosmic and theistic context. It thus provides a powerful antidote to secularism. And it offers as well a powerful antidote to false religions, by showing us what is at stake. False religion can take the blatant form of non-Christians religions like Hinduism or Islam. Or it can infiltrate Christendom in the form of corruptions of the church—classic Roman Catholicism, modernism, legalism, or nominalism.

Bipolar contrasts: purity and corruption, beauty and ugliness, truth and deceit.

The focus on spiritual war alerts us to the polarity between good and evil. To eyes that are morally and religiously sleepy, things look very confused. And indeed, human beings often walk in a kind of moral twilight of mixed motives, where one seldom sees clearly the complex entanglement of good and evil motives in a single attitude or action. Revelation acknowledges that the existing situations are often painfully confused and frustratingly mixed (chapters 2-3). But it does so not to excuse us and permit a lapse into moral complacency, but in order to stir us up to undivided allegiance to God and the Lamb. For this purpose, stark contrasts between purity and corruption, beauty and ugliness, truth and deceit run through the book. The number of ways in which contrasts are depicted are so many dimensions of the total conflict. The difference between God’s ways and Satan’s ways touches on every aspect of life, whether it be purity, singleness of heart, moral action, aesthetic issues (beauty and ugliness), or cognitive issues (truth and error).

Witness and martyrdom

The theme of witness runs through the book. John “testifies to everything he saw” (1:2). He has “the testimony of Jesus” (1:2). Jesus Christ “is the faithful witness” (1:5) in a special, preeminent sense. Revelation contemplates a situation where Christians are subject to persecution for their faith (see on Occasion and Purpose). They may be subject even to the death penalty if they maintain their witness faithfully (2:13; 2:10; 13:15). Jesus Christ was martyred because of his faithfulness to God. Christians may face the same fate. But if so, they share also in Christ’s victory over death (1:18). The whole of Revelation can be seen as one great call to faithfulness even to the point of death (2:10).

Reward and punishment

Faithfulness to Christ makes sense, even if we must pay a price. Revelation points to the fact that God is sovereign and God is just. He meets out punishments on rebels and he gives rewards to his faithful followers. The punishments and rewards include both the preliminary judgments in history, short of the Second Coming, and the final judgments at the Second Coming itself. Even though the saints may look small, weak, and defeated in human eyes, full vindication is coming in God’s own time.

Apocalyptic

In its style and content, Revelation shows tantalizing similarities to some other writings in the Bible, and to others outside the Bible as well. Especially during the period from about 200 B.C. to 400 A.D., various writings of “apocalyptic literature” appeared. Among them were 1 QM (The War Scroll from Qumran), Assumption of Moses, 1-2-3 Enoch, 2-3 Baruch, 4 Ezra, Apocalypse of Peter, Apocalypse of Paul, Apocalypse of Thomas, and Ascension of Isaiah. Within the Bible, the following show some features of apocalyptic literature: Numbers 23-24, Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah 24-27, 1 Thessalonians 4-5, 2 Thessalonians 1-2, the Olivet Discourse, Revelation.

Leon Morris helpfully summarizes the nature of apocalyptic by indicating some of the features that tend to characterize it.¹⁰

• 1. Revelation of the secret things of God, inaccessible to normal human knowledge. Secrets of nature, of heaven, of history, of the end.
• 2. Pseudonymy
• 3. History rewritten as prophecy
• 4. Determinism in history ending in cosmic cataclysm which will establish God’s rule.
• 5. Dualism (good and evil).
• 6. Pessimism about God’s saving rule in the present.
• 7. Bizarre and wild symbols denote historical movements or events.

But “apocalyptic” is a loose category. Not all the writings share all the features. Revelation shares some but not all of the features above. And even the features that it shares it also modifies. Let us consider the above points one by one.

First, Revelation does offer a “revelation of the secret things of God.” But a deeper analysis shows that very little in Revelation is completely new. It repeats in symbolic form the message of the rest of the New Testament. The “secrets” that it reveals are, to Christian believers, already open secrets rather than some weird, fancy, otherwise inaccessible knowledge.

Next, what about pseudonymy? Outside the Bible we find material like 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra, written long after the death of Baruch and Ezra, but pretending to contain secrets revealed to Baruch or Ezra while they still lived on earth. By contrast, Revelation comes simply from “John” (see on Author). It is not pseudonymous. It does not pretend to be something it is not.

3. Revelation does not report history as if it were prophecy. It is forward looking.

4. Determinism. Revelation does present us with a kind of determinism: God controls the entirety of history. Moreover, history leads up to a final cataclysm and the renewal of heaven and earth (21:1). But there are subtle differences. In Revelation, God’s determinism is not fatalism. During this age, Christian action to obey Christ is important (e.g., 2:5,7, 10-11, 16-17, etc.). Earnest exhortation is an important aspect of the whole book, unlike some apocalyptic.

5. Dualism. Revelation contains an ethical dualism between good and evil, similar to apocalyptic. But this dualism is again not frozen or fatalistic. Through repentance people can cross from evil (death) to good (life) (22:17).

6. Pessimism. Pessimism about God’s saving rule in the present is gone. Though the conflict is fierce, victory belongs not only to the future but even to the present, because the Lamb has already triumphed (5:5; 12:10-12).

7. Bizarre and wild symbols dominate the main visionary section of Revelation. But in this area as well, Revelation does something not so typical. The symbols may be bizarre and wild from a modern point of view, but they are not bizarre from the point of view of the original readers. Revelation introduces very little that is totally new. Rather, it combines and reworks symbols already present in earlier parts of the Bible; and occasionally it takes up common symbolism from outside the Bible as well.

A good deal of the uniqueness of Revelation arises from one central point. Revelation is a Christ-centered vision. Christ is the way to God, he is the mediator of God’s plan for history. The truthfulness of Christ’s witness, and the fact that Christ is the truth incarnate, make inappropriate the use of the “pious fictions” of pseudonymy and history-as-prophecy (points 2 and 3). The openness of Christian revelation make irrelevant a preoccupation with “secret” knowledge (point 1) and bizarre, novel symbolism (point 7). The determinism and dualism of Revelation (points 4and 5) are both qualified by the fact that Christ’s death and resurrection introduces the great epoch of salvation. The gospel spreads to the nations and invites people everywhere to participate in salvation rather than remain under God’s wrath. The pessimism of other apocalyptic is inappropriate because Christ has already triumphed (point 6).

Hence, we must not expect too much from comparisons of Revelation with extrabiblical apocalyptic literature. We learn mainly one thing: the use of complex symbolism was “in the air” at the time when John was writing. It would not have seemed as strange then as it does now.

Some modern people come to Revelation with the recipe, “interpret everything literally if possible.” That recipe mistakes what kind of book Revelation is. Of course, John literally saw what he says he saw. But what he saw was a vision. It was filled with symbols, like the Beast of 13:1-8 and the seven blazing lamps in 4:5. It never intended to be a direct, nonsymbolical report of the future. People living in John’s own time understood this matter instinctively, because they recognized that John was writing in a “apocalyptic” manner, a manner already as familiar to them as a political cartoon is today.

Author and Date

The human author identifies himself simply as John (1:1,4,9; 22:8). He was well known to the churches in Asia Minor (1:4, 11; see on Occasion and Purpose below). As early as the second century A.D. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Clement of Alexandria identified the author as the Apostle John.¹¹ The testimony of Justin Martyr and Irenaeus is particularly weighty. Justin lived for some time at Ephesus in the early second century, among those who still remembered John. Irenaeus, later bishop of Lyons, was in his youth a disciple of Polycarp in Asia, and Polycarp was a disciple of John.

In the third century, however, Dionysius bishop of Alexandria compared the style and themes of Revelation with the Gospel of John and concluded that the two must have different authors. Modern scholars find the same differences, and so various hypotheses have arisen to throw doubt on Justin’s and Irenaeus’s testimony. On the balance it is still probable that the Apostle John was the human author.

Revelation stresses that its message and content derive ultimately from Jesus Christ and from God the Father (1:1, 11; 2:1; 22:16, 20). It possesses full divine authority (22:18-19). This divine authority, rather than the identity of the human author, remains most significant foundation for interpretation. Even if Revelation had a different human author from the Gospel of John and 1-2-3 John, it shares themes with the other Johannine writings and hence invites comparison with them. On the other hand, even if all the writings have the same author, Revelation belongs to a different genre. Hence, it must be appreciated in its special character and not be assimilated too quickly to the Gospel and the Letters.

Date

Revelation was written when persecution was impending (2:10, 13). In the figure of the Beast Revelation makes allusion to the fact that in Roman Empire the subject peoples were expected to worship the emperor as a god. Refusal to participate in such worship seemed to express political disloyalty. Hence we may ask when in the first century such a persecution took place. Irenaeus says that Revelation was written near the end of the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian (81-96 A.D.).¹² In later centuries the church thought of Domitian as one of the great persecuting emperors. While he was reigning he claimed divinity and was addressed as “god and lord.” But in the earliest sources it is unclear how far he actually enforced the demand for worship. The other attractive date is at the end of the reign of the Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.). In the early years of Nero’s reign competent advisors had great influence, but the later years degenerated. He is notorious for having blamed Christians for the fire of Rome in 64 A.D. He used this accusation as an excuse to persecute them. But again, there is no clear evidence that this persecution ever extended outside the city of Rome. It is much more important to know what was going on in Asia Minor among the seven churches. Concerning this situation we have little information beyond what Revelation itself gives us.

Some interpreters think that Rev. 11:1-13, and especially 11:8, predict the fall of Jerusalem that took place in 70 A.D. Hence Revelation will have been written shortly before, perhaps in the last years of Nero’s reign (about 66-68 A.D.). But 11:1-2 is symbolic of the church rather than the temple of stone in Palestine (see Commentary). 11:8 is also symbolic.

Rev. 17:10 is often cited in favor of a Neronian date. It says that the seven heads of the scarlet beast (17:3) “are also seven kings. Five have fallen, one is, the other has not yet come; but when he does come, he must remain for a little while.” In agreement with preterism, and in agreement with the concern of God for the seven churches, it is appropriate to interpret and apply this statement with the first century setting. The Beast represents the Roman Empire in its idolatrous claims. The heads may therefore be successive emperors. Julius Caesar was the first emperor, followed by Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. Nero is therefore the sixth, which fits perfectly with 17:10. But there are several difficulties with this approach.

Does Revelation intend to begin the reckoning with Julius Caesar or with Augustus?

Among Roman and Jewish writings one may find writers beginning with either.¹³

Can one harmonize the history after Nero with a reckoning in which Nero is the sixth king?

After Nero come Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, who fought for control of the Empire in 68-69 A.D. Vespasian reigned from 69 to 79, Titus from 79-81, and Domitian from 81-96. Even though 68-69 was a time of confusion, all three figures Galba, Otho, and Vitellius “held the office and title of emperor,”¹⁴ and later historians include them in the lists. The climactic character of the seventh and eighth king must clearly correspond to something more dramatic than Galba or Otho.

The “five who have fallen” may be not five successive Roman emperors.

They may instead be five successive world-dominating empires: Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece. The sixth, the one who “is,” is then the Roman Empire in its totality. But it seems that the Beast of 17:3 and 13:1-8 is the Roman Empire rather than all the empires combined. Hence, it is more likely that 5 is a symbolic number. By saying that the sixth one “is,” Revelation indicates that the final crisis, to take place with the seventh and climactic head, is just around the corner. Six is the number to choose in order to say that we are almost but not quite at the end. Five has no other significance than the fact that it is one less than six.

We have one piece of information from the Roman historian Suetonius that may help to date the onset of the most serious persecution. In his book Domitian Suetonius reports:¹⁵

[Under Domitian,] Besides other taxes, that on the Jews was levied with the utmost rigour, and those were prosecuted who without publicly acknowledging that faith yet lived as Jews, as well as those who concealed their origin and did not pay the tribute levied upon their people.

What is the significance of this note? Because of financial problems in the central administration, Domitian looked carefully for all possible sources of revenue. He enforced all the taxes that were already “on the books,” but which may have fallen into disuse. Among these was a head tax of 2 drachmas levied on the Jews. Before the fall of Jerusalem this tax went for the upkeep of the temple in Jerusalem. After the destruction of Jerusalem it went to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome.¹⁶ Jews paid this tax as an alternative to emperor worship.

The Roman administration understood that Jews were monotheists, and they were exempt from the normal requirement to show political loyalty to the Empire by emperor worship. But Christians were in danger. In the early days of Christianity Roman officials would have regarded Christians as one more Jewish sect (cf. Acts 25:19). But as the number of Gentile Christians multiplied, this classification would seem less and less appropriate. When Domitian began to enforce the tax, the status of Christians would naturally come up for investigation. Moreover, non-Christian Jews who were at enmity with the church might denounce Christians to the Roman authorities, saying, “These people claim to be Jews, but they are not.” Hence, they would be suspected of disloyalty to the Empire, and subjected to enormous pressure, including possibly violent persecution. The possible role of Jewish denunciations may also illumine the meaning of the statements in Revelation about “those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan” (2:9; cf. 3:9).

Occasion and Purpose

Revelation is addressed to seven churches in Asia Minor (1:4,11; the area is now part of western Turkey). Each church received rebukes and encouragement, in accord with its condition (2:1-3:22). Persecution had fallen on some Christians (1:9; 2:9,13; 3:9) and more was coming (2:10; 13:7-10). Roman officials would try to force Christians to worship the emperor. Heretical teachings and declining fervor tempted Christians to compromise with pagan society (2:2,4, 14-15, 20-24; 3:1-2, 15, 17). Revelation assures Christians that Christ knows their condition. He calls them to stand fast against all temptation. Their victory has been secured through the blood of the Lamb (5:9-10; 12:11). Christ will come soon to defeat Satan and all his agents (19:11-20:10), and his people will enjoy everlasting peace in his presence (7:15-17; 21:3-4).